Pallava Temple
The Tamil region was called the Dravidian region during the Gupta period and earlier. In the temple art of that period, wood and kandras were used more. Therefore the early Pallava craftsmen used the same methods in temple construction.
After the defeat of the Guptas, when Simhavishnu established an independent kingdom in the 6th century AD by capturing Kanchi and the surrounding region of Mahabalipuram, the Pallava craftsmen made new experiments in architecture and freed the temple architecture from the influence of woodwork and kandrakala. contributed immensely in doing so. Therefore it would be fair to say that the Dravidian style of temples originated in Mahabalipuram and the adjoining region during the period of the Pallava rulers.
The Pallava temple architecture can be classified into four major styles- (1) Mahendravarman style, (2) Mamalla style (3.) Rajasimha style and (4) Nandivarman style.
(1.) Mahendravarman style
The development of this style took place between AD 610 to 640. Temples of this style are called mandapas. These pavilions are simple pillared verandahs in which one or more chambers have been made in the back wall. These chambers have been made in the form of a cave temple by cutting hard stone.
The idols of the gatekeepers have been installed on both sides of the outer gate of the mandapa. The pillars of the pavilion are generally square. The Trimurti Mandap of Mandagapattu, the Panchapandava Mandap of Pallavaram, the Mahendra Vishnugriha Mandap of Mahendravadi, the Vishnu Mandap of Mamandur are particularly noteworthy among the Mandapas of Mahendra style.
(2.) Mamalla Style
The development of this style took place during the reign of King Narasimhavarman (I) during the period from AD 640 to 674. Narasimhavarman assumed the title of Mahamalla, hence this style is called Mahamalla or Mamalla style. This king founded Mamallapuram which later came to be known as Mahabalipuram. Two types of temples have been built in this style - (1) Mandap style temples and (2) Ratha style temples.
Mandap style:Mandap style temples are similar to Mahendravarman style but their developed form is visible in Mamalla style. The Mamalla style pavilions are more ornate than the Mahendravarman style. Their pillars are situated on the top of lions and the tops of the pillars are of Mangalghat shape. Adivarah Mandap, Mahismardini Mandap, Panchapandava Mandap and Ramanuja Mandap are particularly noteworthy.
Ratha style:The temples in the chariot style are carved out of huge rocks in the form of wooden chariots. Their architecture is similar to the mandapa style. These chariots have evolved from Buddhist viharas and chaityagrihas. The major chariot temples are Draupadi Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula-Sahdev Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Dharmaraja Ratha, Ganesh Ratha, Pidari Ratha etc. These are all Shaivite temples. Draupadi's chariot is the smallest.
Dharmaraja Ratha is the most grand and famous. Its summit is pyramid shaped. This temple is in two parts. The lower section is square and has a combined verandah attached to it. This chariot temple is rectangular and the pinnacle is drum-shaped. The Ratha temples of Mamalla style are also famous for sculpture. The idols of deities like Durga, Indra, Shiva, Ganga, Parvati, Harihara, Brahma, Skanda etc. are engraved on these chariots. This style also came to an end with Narasimhavarman (1st).
(3.) Raj Singh Style
Narasimhavarman (II) assumed the title of Rajasimha. That is why this style is called Raj Singh style after his name. The seaside temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Baikuntha Perumal temple are the main temples of this style. Among them, the coastal Shiva temple of Mahabalipuram is a wonderful monument of Pallava architecture and crafts.
This temple is built in a huge courtyard, whose sanctum is towards the sea and the entrance is towards the west. There is circumambulatory path and terraced peak around it. There is a stupa on the top. On its walls, idols of gods like Ganesha and Skanda etc. and strong animals like Gaja and Shardul are engraved.
The climax of the Rajasimha style is visible in the Kailashnath temple of Kanchi. Its construction started during the reign of Narasimhavarman (II) and was completed during the reign of his successor Mahendravarman (II). All the features of Dravidian style are visible in this temple. Shiva sports in the temple have been depicted through many idols.
Shortly after the construction of this temple, the temple of Baikuntha Perumal was built. It has a sanctum with circumambulatory path and a mandapa with steps. The vimana of the temple is square and four storeyed, whose height is about 60 feet. The first floor has idols of various incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Scenes of coronation, succession selection, Ashwamedha, war and urban life have been inscribed on the inner walls of the temple. This temple presents a fully developed form of Pallava architecture.
(4.) Nandivarman style
No new elements of architecture are visible in the temples of this style, but they appear to be continuously smaller in size. The temples of this style are merely replicas of the earlier Pallava temples. These temples were built under the rule of Nandivarman and his successors. There is some development in the pillar heads in the temples of this style.
Among the temples of this style, Mukteshwar and Matangeshwara temples of Kanchi and Parashurameshwara temple of Gudimallam are notable. There is a lack of vitality in them, which suggests that the builders of these temples were in some trouble. The construction of these temples stopped by the end of the tenth century.
Rashtrakuta Temple
The most famous Kailashnath temple of Ellora was built during the Rashtrakuta period. This place is 15 miles away from Aurangabad city of Andhra Pradesh. It was built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (AD.758-773). Another style of cave-temple art appears in it.
Traditionally, in the construction of the cave temple, excavation was done from the lower part of the mountain and hollowing it up to the top, but to build the Kailashnath temple, the craftsmen started carving a long hill from the top and covered the entire hill from top to bottom. After carving all the parts of the temple - roof, gates, windows, windows, pillars, pylons, pavilions, shikhara, sanctum sanctorum, surrounding verandahs etc. made.
The vimana of this temple is in the shape of a parallelogram. It is 150 feet long and 100 feet wide. This plane is situated on a 25 feet high platform. The height of the top of the temple is 95 feet. The temple has a sanctum sanctorum in front of which there is a pillared pavilion, which is 70 feet long and 60 feet wide.
This main building is followed by a Nandi-mandapa with two flag pillars 51-51 feet high on either side. Trishuls are installed on them. The main temple is surrounded by verandahs around which pillar rows and chambers have been built. This temple is two-storeyed and has been carved out of only one rock without any joints.
Statues are engraved on the pillars of the temple, beautiful vines and flowers have been made on the gates and on the summit scenes from the mythological stories like Shiva-Parvati marriage, Indra-Indrani and Ravana's lifting of Kailash etc. have been depicted. There is an elephant on either side of the pylon.
Temples and idols have been built by cutting the upper part of two hills in the island called Dharapuri, about 6 miles from Bombay. These are called Elephanta Caves. These are also believed to have been built in the Rashtrakuta period.
Chola Temple Architecture
The Dravidian temple style flourished in the temples built by the Cholas. The Cholas had replaced the Pallavas and the Pandyas. Therefore the Cholas carried forward the architecture of the Pallavas and the Pandyas. Chola Shilpi was the best architect and sculptor of his time. His style was a perfect blend of simplicity and elegance. The bronze sculptures made by him are unique.
They developed high-quality metal smelting techniques to make huge sculptures. The construction of Chola temples continued from AD 850 to 1200. These can be placed in two categories - (1) Early temples - which were built between AD 850 to 985, (2.) Subsequent temples - which were built between AD 985 to 1200.
There is no special difference between Pallava and Chola temples in terms of composition of temple architecture, but due to local stylistic features, Chola temples have special importance. In the early Chola temples (1.) Vijayalaya (2.) Bhuvanakonam (3.) Mukundeshwara (4. Kadambara (5.) Bala Subrahmanya (6.) Nattamalai (7.) Kaliyapatti (8.) Trichandisvara (9.) Sundareswara ( 10.) Nageshwar (11.) Korangnath and (12.) Agasteshwar temple are more famous.
During the long rule of the Cholas for three and a half hundred years, the entire Tamil region was filled with small and big temples. During the reign of the Cholas, initially stone buildings and later brick buildings were built. The first of these is Tarukkalukkunram in Chigalpatt district. Its architecture dates back to the later-Pallava or early-Chola style.
The lower half of the pillars have figures of lions sitting with folded legs and thick spiers on the top of the pillars. In the beginning of the Chola era, relatively small temples were built. Their construction is similar to the Mukteshwar and Bahur temples of Kanchi. After this, the grand form of the Chola temples came to the fore from the reign of Parantaka (first) to Rajaraja (first).
The main feature of these temples is that the main temple appears to be covered over the rest of the sub-temples. 'Antaral' in front of the sanctum sanctorum in these temples It is the integral part of the main temple itself. 'Gap' In its true sense there is a passage between the sanctum sanctorum and the front maha-mandapa. 'plane' in these temples Has risen above the sanctum sanctorum.
'Uppeeth' Kumudaya begins with Ashta-Bhuja. Later it goes up and becomes circular. 'Padmabandha' between the pillars and the head of the temple Is. Top to bottom 'Kalash' Is. 'Top-Faces' of Columns It is the extension on which the roof rests.
A square rough stone with a petal shape at the bottom becomes the main feature of the pillar. The Chola ruler Aditya (I) built many Shaivite temples, in which the Sundareswara temple, Nageshwar at Kumbakonam and the Koranganatha temple at Nallur built by Parantaka (I) became very famous.
Temple of Keranganatha:The oldest temple from the time of Parantaka (I) is at Srinivasanallur in Trichanapally district. It is called the temple of Korangnath. The length of this temple is 50 feet. It has a sanctum of 25 feet by 25 feet and a mandapa of 25 feet by 25 feet. Above the sanctum is a 20 feet high shikhara. The sculptures raised on the vimana are richly ornamented.
The most famous of these idols is that of Kali. It has an idol of Saraswati on one side and Lakshmi on the other. An asura idol is engraved under Kali. In Pallava art, instead of lion-faces, the faces of some strange animals have been engraved.
In the second category of Chola temples, three temples are particularly noteworthy – Rajarajeshwara of Tanjore, Brihadisvara of Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara of Darasuram. These three temples are the best examples of Dravidian style and Chola art.
Brihadeeswarar Temple: The Chola ruler Rajaraja Mahan built the Brihadisvara Nath temple at Tanjore, which later became 'Rajarajeshwara' became famous by the name of It is the largest and tallest among the temples of the south. This temple with its sanctum sanctorum, main mandapa, ardha mandapa and Nandi mandapa is situated in a 500 ft long and 250 ft wide courtyard. The entire temple is built inside a prakara.
Its 'Gopuram' is in the east direction. 'Madil' There are rows of columns adjacent to it. There are 35 sub-temples in the temple complex. Its caste-vimana is 190 feet high and its summit is built in thirteen floors built above the thigh. In the horizontal form, on each floor of the summit, there is a necklace of small peaks of Koot, Shala and Panjar nature. There are also four Nandis on the necklace of the last floor.
The griva of the vimana is octagonal and a large monolithic but octagonal stupi is enshrined on it. The top part of the summit is like a sphere. Four feathered ledges have been made around it. The caste plane of the temple seems to be touching the sky. From the point of view of art, this temple is of high quality. It is probably the best among the temples of Dravidian art style.
Gangaikonda-Cholpur Temple:Rajendra Chola, the son of Rajaraja the Great, built a Brihadisvara temple in his newly built capital, Gangaikonda-Cholpur. This temple was completed in 25 years. Visually it is similar to the Brihadisvara temple of Tanjore. That's why Percy Brown called it 'Tanjore Ki Sangini' Named after.
The only difference between the two is more detail, ornamentation and detail. The temple is rectangular, whose sides are 340 feet by 100 feet. Its summit is 150 feet high. The temple can be mainly divided into five parts- (1.) Garbhagriha, (2.) Antarala (3.) Mandap (4.) Ardhamandapa and
(5.) Exterior. Its pavilion is 175 feet long and 95 feet wide. There are two grand gates at the north and south ends of the mandapa with 'Dwarpals' on either side. There are impressive sculptures of गर्भगृह के सम्मुख विशाल मण्डप बना हुआ है जो 240 स्तम्भों पर खड़ा है। यह कक्ष एक चपटी छत से ढका है जिसकी धरती से ऊंचाई 18 फुट है। मन्दिर का विमान 160 फुट ऊंचा है।
इसका आधार 100 फुट गुणा 100 फुट है जो बीच में बनी एक भारी कार्निस के द्वारा दो भागों में विभक्त है। गर्भगृह की दीवारों की ऊंचाई 35 फुट है। इसमें दो मंजिल हैं। विमान का आकार पिरामिडनुमा है। इसमें आठ मंजिलें (तल) हैं। ऊपर की प्रत्येक मंजिल नीचे की मंजिल से छोटी है। तंजौर के मंदिर में मध्य भाग की रेखा सीधी है परन्तु गंगैकोण्ड चोलपुर के मन्दिर के मध्य भाग की रेखा वक्र है।
परिणास्वरूप यह मन्दिर देखने में अधिक सुन्दर लगता है परन्तु इसकी मजबूती कम हो गई है। तंजौर के मन्दिर में शक्ति सन्तुलन और गाम्भीर्य अधिक है। इस मन्दिर में सौन्दर्य और विलास अधिक है।
परवर्ती चोल काल (ई.1070-1250) में भी मन्दिरों का निर्माण उसी गति से होता रहा। इन मन्दिरों में दो प्रमुख हैं- (1.) तंजौर जिले में स्थित कंपहेश्वर (त्रिभुवनाविरेश्वर) का मन्दिर और (2.) तंजौर जिले में ही दारासुरम का एरावतेश्वर मन्दिर।
दारासुरम का मन्दिर चोल-पाण्ड्यकालीन है। इस समय तक चोल मन्दिर संरचना विशाल आकार के प्रतीक प्रतिबद्ध न होकर नए तत्त्वों का अन्वेषण करती प्रतीत होती है। इसलिए दारासुरम का मन्दिर न तो अधिक विशाल है और न प्राकार से घिरा हुआ है। इस मन्दिर की कल्पना एक ऐसे रथ के रूप में की गई है जिसे हाथी खींच रहे हैं। इसका जाति-विमान पंचतल है और ऊपरी तल पत्थर के स्थान पर ईंटों से निर्मित है।
चालुक्य मंदिर स्थापत्य कला
चालुक्यों के शासन काल में कला के तीन प्रमुख केन्द्र थे- एहोल, वातापी (बादामी) और पट्टडकल। एहोल में लगभग 70 मन्दिर मिले हैं जिनके कारण इस नगर को ‘मन्दिरों का नगर’ it is said. समस्त मन्दिर गर्भगृह और मण्डपों से युक्त हैं परन्तु छतों की बनावट अलग-अलग है।
कुछ मन्दिरों की छतें चपटी हैं तो कुछ की ढलवां। ढलवां छतों पर शिखर भी हैं। स्थापत्य की दृष्टि से ये मंदिर अधिक परिपूर्ण नहीं हैं। चैलुक्यों के प्रारम्भिक मन्दिरों में लालाखां का मन्दिर और दुर्गा मन्दिर विशेष उल्लेखनीय हैं।
वातापी (बादामी) में चालुक्य वास्तुकला का निखरा हुआ रूप देखने को मिलता है। यहाँ पहाड़ को काटकर चार मण्डप बनाए गए हैं जो स्तम्भ युक्त हॉल के समान है। इनमें एक मण्डप जैनियों का है और शेष तीन मण्डप हिन्दू-धर्म के हैं। इनके तीन मुख्य भाग हैं- गर्भगृह, मण्डप और अर्धमण्डप।
पट्टडकल के मन्दिर स्थापत्य की दृष्टि से अधिक सुन्दर हैं। पट्टडकल में आर्य शैली के चार मन्दिर और द्रविड़ शैली के छः मन्दिर बने हुए हैं। आर्य शैली का सर्वाधिक सुन्दर ‘पापनाथ का मन्दिर’ Is. द्रविड़ शैली का सर्वाधिक आकर्षक मन्दिर ‘विरूपाक्ष का मन्दिर’ है।
पापनाथ का मन्दिर 90 फुट लम्बा है। मन्दिर के गर्भगृह और मण्डप के मध्य का अन्तराल भी एक मण्डप जैसा प्रतीत होता है। गर्भगृह के ऊपर एक शिखर है, जो ऊपर की तरफ संकरा होता चला गया है। मन्दिर की बनावट काफी सुन्दर है। विरूपाक्ष मन्दिर चालुक्य मंदिर शैली का अच्छा उदाहरण है। यह 120 फुट लम्बा है। मन्दिर के गर्भगृह और मण्डप के मध्य का अन्तराल काफी छोटा है। मन्दिर के विभिन्न भागों को मूर्तियों से सजाया गया है। हैवेल ने इस मन्दिर के स्थापत्य की प्रशंसा की है।
चालुक्य राजा पुलकेशिन (प्रथम) ने अपनी राजधानी बादामी को अनेक नवीन भवनों एवं मन्दिरों से सजाया। उसके भाई मंगलेश ने कुछ गुहा-मन्दिरों का निर्माण करवाया। विजयादित्य के शासन काल में कला को खूब प्रोत्साहन मिला। उसने पट्टडकल में भगवान शिव का एक सुन्दर मन्दिर बनवाया। कल्याणी के जयसिंह (द्वितीय) ने अपनी राजधानी कल्याणी को सुन्दर भवनों एवं मन्दिरों से सजाया।
सोमेश्वर (प्रथम) ने भी कल्याणी में अनेक निर्माण करवाए। विक्रमादित्य (षष्ठम्) ने ‘विक्रमपुर’ नामक नवीन नगर की स्थापना की और एक विशाल एवं भव्य मन्दिर का निर्माण करवाया। इस प्रकार चालुक्य राजाओं ने स्थापत्य कला को निरन्तर प्रोत्साहन दिया।