Author:Clementine
In times of war as in times of peace, spies have always worked with the powerful . Julius Caesar, Louis XIV or Churchill, all needed information to carry out their policy and try to guess enemy strategies, the weakness of a neighboring country or even potential threats to the sovereign. Some spies have gone down in history, such as the Chevalier d'Eon or Juan Pujol Garcia . But for others, their stories have been lost due to the secretive nature of their office, (only 13% of original British Secret Service WWII papers have survived through intentional or accidental destruction!). Revealing the identity of a spy is dangerous, and sharing encryption techniques is perilous for a nation.
The role of spies was essential in the conduct of a war, today I will introduce you to The group of secret agents who played a major role during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Come follow the adventures of the Culper Ring !
No taxation without representation! (no taxes without representation):a little reminder, the origins of the war
It is often said that money is the sinews of war, for the thirteen colonies the desire for independence begins with fiscal pressure . Following the 7-year war (1756-1763) between France and England, the British coffers were left empty. Thus, the country believes that it is up to the beneficiaries of the conflict, the 13 colonies, to bear the cost.
The country promotes a series of taxes increasing customs duties on products imported into New England (sugar, glass, lead, etc.). These measures are subject to public scrutiny. The revolts multiply, the most famous revolution is the Boston Tea Party. The Houses of Burghers in the provinces boycott all British goods . Finally, many voices theorize resistance to British tax pressure:
This break with the metropolis is exacerbated by the multiplication of popular actions against the local British authorities and the "Intolerbale Acts", a series of punitive laws enacted by Parliament against the settlers. The Patriots, who saw these laws as an arbitrary violation of their own, organized the first Continental Congress in 1774. The American Revolution broke out in April 1775 , leading to the declaration of independence of the United States of America on June 4, 1776.
The creation of the Culper Ring, secret agent farmers?!
1776, the English violently struck the troops of George Washington while taking New York , (the city will only be taken over 7 years later). Only a month after declaring their independence, Congress lost Long Island. The Patriots are forced to withdraw. It's a hard blow, New York City is a stronghold, a port of exchange and commerce.
Washington wanted to create a network to thwart British intentions and locate ammunition stocks. He had a recurring need for a spy to find out what was going on in the city. All the first attempts proved unsuccessful, the most telling example being that of Nathan Hale. The young patriot volunteered to slip behind enemy lines and locate English troops in New York. Hale was unfortunately spotted, arrested and hanged.
Washington asked Nathaniel Sackett to create the first spy ring. The latter has modernized the techniques, fundamental for the services. Instead of sending agents to collect information and come back with it, he came up with the idea of permanently establishing spies living in enemy territory. These agents had to locate more information while preserving their identity. Unfortunately, the results did not match Sackett's investment. Dismissed by Washington, a replacement had to be found very quickly. Spies and slave labor were executed by both Loyalists and Patriots .
The choice fell on Major Benjamin Tallmadge, comrade in arms and close friend of Nathan Hale. Instead of using all the old spy techniques relying on the military, Tallmadge, accompanied by Caleb Brewster, a spy from his native village, decided to call on a farmer , Abraham Woodhull, another childhood friend of Setauket. Woodhull is a farmer, he looks nothing like a spy, but his sister lives in New York, his back and forth will not be suspicious. Initially, reluctant to become a spy (he is more moderate than these two companions), he becomes radicalized anti-British following the death of General Nathanial Woodhull (a relative).
In case of interception of correspondence, the three men need aliases so as not to be spotted. Tallmadge becomes John Bolton, Brewster ranks his own name. Woodhull's was inspired by Washington's job at Culpeper County as a teenager and Samuel, the name of Tallmadge's younger brother. He will be known as Samuel Culper.
The Culper Ring was born.
When we come to town! Samuel Culper in New York
In the early days, the network relied primarily on Brewster and Woodhull. The three men being childhood friends have mutual trust. Tallmadge is the only link they have to communicate with Washington. After swearing loyalty to the King, Woodhull sends his first report. He had two missions, to be the contact for Brewster (who carried the message by the river) and to travel to New York. The second was much more dangerous, the undercover agent had to pass the British checkpoints , buy passage permits (to the detriment of his farm and family). The spy recruits his sister's husband to facilitate his travels.
The missives had to be transmitted quickly. Brewster took care of going through the Sound (Connecticut side), where couriers brought them to the camp. He watched the English ships, the arrival of the next troops or the next assaults. New York press releases were more complex to transfer . Tallmadge has once again recruited men of confidence living in Setauket. Although less involved than the two spies, they risked their lives to secretly carry messages out of New York.
Encryption and invisible ink, the panoply of the best Culper Ring spy
Tallmadge was looking for a way to preserve the secrets of the correspondences. Even though the agents didn't use their real names, having a report was enough to spot them as a spy. The group and spy techniques evolve , they use couriers, secret hiding places to deposit and circulate information, use invisible ink and encrypt their correspondence.
Want to make your own invisible ink? Use a mixture of lemon and water and voila! You just have to put your letter in the candle light to read it. George Washington no longer wanted an invisible ink that heats up (and therefore easily decipherable). Doctor James Jay created a specific ink which, after depositing a revealing agent, made the text reappear as if by magic. His ink is seen as revolutionary . However, its production is very long, Tallmadge must find another solution to secure the mail:coding.
Woodhull already used numbers to refer to New York, Setauket and its couriers, Tallmadge takes this idea to make a dictionary . He chooses a list of 763 numbers or 710 words and 53 names and places. Each of the words are randomly assigned a number. Washington becomes 711, Tallmadge 721, (219 for arms, 223 gold, etc.) all transcribed into a book given to key members of the organization. Without the dictionary impossible to decipher it!
Although this system is a success, the limits of the Culper Ring are beginning to be felt. Samuel Culper observes the movements of the troops, the ships, the presence of officers in New York but they have no way of discovering what the officers were saying to each other. In addition, Woodhull finds his role as a spy more and more difficult . It is a dangerous job where he is far from his family and his farm. He is increasingly suspect in the eyes of the British as he travels. He needs a permanent agent in New York.
Tallmadge recruits new agents, especially women, who are less suspicious and underestimated than the men. The best known is Agent 355 (discussed in more detail later).
Woodhull takes interest in Robert Townsend. British harassment around his family and the invasion of New York scarred the man. The new agent 723 began his career as a spy in 1779. He was a pillar of the local New York community. He is in contact with the army and an English officer through his trade as a merchant, a society journalist, he also owns a loyalist coffee house. Even though he was a spy, he refused to let his name be known. No one except one or two key members knew his identity , including Washington. He was nicknamed Samuel Culper Junior.
Thanks to his work, Tallmadge has his complete network:Townsend collects information and codes with invisible ink . His missives are mailed to Setauket and forwarded to Woodhull who also adds his news. Anna Strong, another childhood friend living in Setauket (and one of the only female members of the network) signals Brewster that he can receive the documents to take to Tallmadge. She hung a black petticoat on her clothesline easily visible from a boat, then a number of handkerchiefs to define the meeting place. Real teamwork!
The Culper Ring in action!
Townsent and Woodhull form a powerful duo! Officers have repeatedly prevented debacles. They succeeded in thwarting an attack in Connecticut aimed at Washington. A series of raids was to get him out of the lines to take it from behind. Warned by the network, the strikes were aborted.
Samuel Culper Junior (Townsent) saw himself as a valuable ally. A loyalist would have communicated to him that a spy was in the ranks of the patriots. His intelligence service was paramount, he discovered that the British were flooding the country with counterfeit money to weaken the patriots. He communicated the number of troops, the name of the commanders or the dates of the next attacks.
Woodhull still continues his occasional trips to New York but is now accompanied by Anna Strong. The pseudo couple is less likely to be suspicious to the British who are looking for single men.
Months pass and techniques are perfected! All of Townsend's posts are written on much more secure pamphlet pages. The network becomes more and more professional, Tallmadge and Washington give them new instructions, they must find out:
- How many soldiers are in the city, which corps and their parking lots,
- City defenses (cannon and position)
- How troops are supplied
- Battalion Morale and Health
That's a lot of information to convey but it shows Washington's ambition and the confidence he had in the Culper Ring . The network managed to find all its information pushing Washington not to attack the stronghold in order to avoid a disastrous defeat.
The Culper Ring was once again decisive in bringing relief to the French fleet recently engaged in the conflict. Townsend discovered that an English admiral assembled nine buildings, or 8,000 men. This fleet was sailing towards Rhode Island to attack the newly landed French troops. The troops would attack them on sea and on land, the Americans would lose a major ally in this conflict. The information was transmitted to the Marquis de Lafayette and Rochambeau and prepare for an imminent attack. The English generals spotting the opposing movement aborted the attack.
And among the English? The betrayal of Bénédict Arnold
If one day, during a trip to the United States, you are told that you are like Bénédict Arnold, that will not be a compliment. Arnold embodies the symbol of betrayal in American history. Formerly a respected war hero, an excellent officer, he shone during the Revolution during the capture of Fort Ticonderoga or the invasion of Canada and Quebec. The battle of Saratoga marks the turning point of the conflict in 1777. Historians believe that Arnold had a decisive role in this conflict even if he does not take any credit for it, he even came out injured in the leg! This is the beginning of the slow descent into betrayal . Bénédict is full of bitterness towards Congress for not having supported him for his military expenses which he must reimburse with his own fortune. His marriage to Peggy Shippen, the daughter of a loyalist caused a scandal. The latter was also very close to Major John André, the head of the British secret service. His life in society, his financial investments and his questionable connections lead Congress to court-martial him for malfeasance.
In July 1780, Arnold obtained the fort of West Point from Washington , a key point in New York State. He wanted to deliver it to the English through Major André (a heavy loss for the Patriots!). However, these plans are thwarted by the arrest of John André. The latter, carrying numerous documents testifying to his actions, was tried and hanged for espionage. Arnold escapes and officially becomes a brigadier-general at Her Majesty's command.
The English have certainly lost the head of their spy networks, but Arnold's defection has dealt a blow to the morale of the troops. The loss of André made the British realize several vital points:the territory was swarming with spies , there may have been a traitor in Setauket and information was coming from New York. One thing is certain, the last letters received from Arnold spoke of a spy network. The English would do everything to find him.
Agent 355:
Codename:Agent 355, Gender:Female, Occupation:Spy, Identity:Unknown. It was impossible not to talk about the most famous agent of the Revolution! Agent 355 was one of America's first female spies during the American Revolution. A member of the Culper Ring, a haze of mystery surrounds this iconic character.
Abraham Woodhull mentioned his existence in only one letter, but it is impossible for us to know his identity. Samuel Culper wrote in Washington on August 15, 1779:“I intend to visit 727 [New York] before long and think by the assistance of a 355 of my acquaintance, shall be able to out wit them all. The number 355 meant Lady (lady).
One thing is certain, fervent patriot, his role would have been decisive in the disclosure of the betrayal of Bénédict Arnold and the arrest of British intelligence chief John André. 355 would have been in contact with Arnold, then passed on decisive information to Tallmadge. The patriot was later arrested and died on a prison boat in New York. However, no source reveals the presence of a woman on a prison boat.
Today historians wonder, did this famous spy really exist? Some believe it was Anna Strong, others a close friend of Townsend. It could be that there is not a 355 agent but agents. The code 355 would be used to indicate women who were not members of the network but helped the patriots. Myth or reality, one thing is certain, this famous agent was a fearless woman who contributed to the Revolution.
A slow recovery towards activity, the last days of the Culper Ring
After Arnold's defection and a downtime, the Culper Ring resumed operations in January 1781. Unfortunately, the action was short-lived. Two major problems confront them:security and money. Washington has stopped providing funds and reports are finding it increasingly difficult to get out of New York. There have always been risks, but the British increased the number of checkpoints and recruited informants who had to report all suspicious activity. British agents are looking for individuals in contact with Tallmadge in Setauket. Anyone who travels extensively is now considered a suspect. Townsend no longer wants to send written reports, Woodhull, already suspected, no longer wishes to return to New York.
In the summer of 1781, the Culper Ring was no longer active , he resumed his duties a year when Washington asked them to monitor British activities in New York during the negotiations of the peace treaty (travel being less dangerous).
On February 21, 1783, Samuel Culper sends his last report,the network then ceases its activities.
Many men and women risked their lives to convey crucial information to the patriots. They all resumed a normal life after the conflict. Brewster continued as a patriot, always cooperating with Tallmadge. He married and had 8 children. He died in 1827 at age 80. Townsent never received his post in the administration of Washington, he continued his activity, he died in 1838 at the age of 84. Major Benjamen Tallmadge married shortly after the war he was elected to Congress. He died in 1835 at age 81. He hardly ever spoke of his spy activities. Abraham Woodhull remarried on the death of his first wife, he died in 1826 at the age of 75. They kept their activities secret, the Culper Ring was not known to the general public until the 20th century .
It wasn't until 1929 that old letters from Robert Townsend were examined by historian Morton Pennypacher. The latter spotted a similarity between the missives written by Samuel Culper Junior in the private collection in Washington. Today, this quiet group has gone down in history as America's first spies.
Our Guest Author:Clémentine
Hello everyone, my name is Clementine And like you, I am also a history buff! This has not always been the case, when I was younger I was allergic to it... I had the "hump" of history when I began to discover the Sun King, his loves, his wars and especially Versailles! Today, I try to transmit my passion on a daily basis, whether through my job as cultural manager of the Château de Thoiry or through research as a doctoral student with a study of the French nobility in the 19th century.
Bibliography:
– Captivating History, The Culper Ring:A Captivating Guide to George Washington’s Spy Ring and its Impact on the American Revolution, 2018.
– Encyclopedia.com, The Culper Ring
– Memoir of Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge (New York:Thomas Holman, 1858)
– Corey Ford, A Peculiar Service, Boston:Little, Brown, 1965