- The Spanish colonial government: Rizal criticized the oppressive and discriminatory policies of the Spanish colonial government, which stifled progress and limited opportunities for Filipinos.
- The friars: Rizal was critical of the friars, who held significant power in the Philippines and often used their influence to suppress dissent and maintain control. He saw them as obstacles to progress and reform.
- The wealthy and educated Filipinos who collaborated with the Spanish colonial government: Rizal criticized the wealthy and educated Filipinos who chose to align themselves with the Spanish colonizers and benefit from the existing system, rather than working towards the betterment of their own country.
- The lack of unity and national consciousness among Filipinos: Rizal believed that the divided state of the Filipino people, and their lack of unity and national consciousness, made it difficult to achieve progress and reform. He emphasized the importance of unity and solidarity in order to overcome the challenges faced by the Philippines.