* Magnetic compass: Invented in China during the 11th century, the magnetic compass allowed sailors to navigate by aligning it with the Earth's magnetic field.
* Astrolabe: Developed in the 15th century, the astrolabe was used to measure the positions of celestial bodies and determine latitude and longitude.
* Sextant: Invented in the 18th century, the sextant allowed sailors to more accurately measure the angle between two objects, such as the horizon and a celestial body.
Ship Design
* Carrack: Developed in the 15th century, the carrack was a large, seaworthy ship that could carry a large crew and cargo.
* Galleon: Introduced in the 16th century, the galleon was a fast, maneuverable ship that was well-suited for exploration and warfare.
Sails
* Square sails: Square sails were the most common type of sail used on European ships during the Age of Exploration. They were attached to the ship's masts and spars and could be adjusted to catch the wind from different directions.
* Lateen sails: Lateen sails were triangular sails that were used on Mediterranean ships. They were more efficient than square sails in light winds and allowed ships to sail closer to the wind.
Propulsion
* Oars: Oars were the primary means of propulsion for ships before the development of sails.
* Wind: Sails allowed ships to harness the power of the wind to move across the ocean.
* Steam engines: Steam engines were first used to power ships in the 19th century. They provided a more reliable and powerful means of propulsion than sails.
Navigation Charts and Maps
* Portolan charts: Portolan charts were sea maps that showed the coastlines and ports of the Mediterranean Sea. They were developed in the 13th century and were used by European explorers to navigate the Atlantic Ocean.
* Mercator projection: The Mercator projection is a map projection that was developed in the 16th century. It is a conformal projection, meaning that it preserves the correct shape of landmasses. The Mercator projection is still used today for navigation and is the basis for most modern world maps.
Astronomy and Navigation Instruments
* Telescope: The telescope was invented in the 17th century and allowed explorers to observe the stars and planets in greater detail. This led to a better understanding of the universe and helped explorers to navigate more accurately.
* Chronometer: The chronometer was invented in the 18th century and allowed explorers to accurately measure time at sea. This was essential for navigation, as it allowed explorers to determine their longitude.