A Viking ship in Sognefjord, Norway • GETTY IMAGES/ISTOCKPHOTO The Duchy of Normandy was not born, as tradition would have it, in 911, the date of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. Its foundation is the result of a long and complex process, known thanks to Dudon, a canon of Saint-Quentin who composed a Historia Normannorum between 994 and 1015. From this historical testimony emerges a central and still enigmatic character:the Viking leader Rollo. Rollo would be from present-day Scandinavia. According to the Icelandic sagas, composed at the end of the 13th th century by Snorri Sturluson, including the Saga of King Harald with the Fair Hair , Rollon would be Rolf Ganger, son of Rögnvald, jarl of the region of Möre; Rolf is said to have been banished from Norway for having plundered the heart of the kingdom, by transgressing the orders of King Harald. Dudon and the sagas therefore make Rollo a high-ranking character, who would have refused to submit to the authority of his king when he was trying to establish centralized power in Norway. Rollo's saga Rollo would have stayed in the islands north of Scotland (Shetland, Orkney or Hebrides). Then, after trying to settle in the north of England, he would have decided very quickly to move to the continent, to the country of the Walgres, located at the mouth of the Rhine and the Meuse. He would have arrived in the bay of the Seine around 876 – date given by Dudon – or more likely around 885-886, perhaps on the occasion of the great siege of Paris, in which, still according to Dudon, he would have participated as a simple sidekick under the authority of Godfried, another Viking leader. He was already established around Rouen when he launched his two expeditions against the city of Bayeux in 889, then in 890; it was during this second siege that he seized the city and plundered it. He even appropriated a young woman named Popa, the daughter of Count Berenger II of Neustria, and made her his concubine. From this union were born a son, Guillaume "Long Sword", and a daughter, Gerloc, who married Guillaume III Tête d'Étoupe, future Duke of Aquitaine. In 890, Rollo plundered Rouen and appropriated a young woman named Popa, the daughter of Count Berenger II of Neustria, and made her his concubine. From this union were born a son, Guillaume "Long Sword", and a daughter, Gerloc, who married Guillaume III Tête d'Étoupe, future Duke of Aquitaine. In Rouen, Rollo would have met the archbishop of the city, a certain Francon. The latter would have come to meet the Viking chief to tell him that the city had suffered many disasters, and that all the military, administrative and religious executives had fled long ago. He remained alone to ensure the protection of a defenseless and destitute people. The archbishop would then have had the idea of asking him to ensure the security of Rouen, which Rollo would have accepted. But if the latter had found a quiet territory to settle there with numerous troops, he did not give up on undertaking raids of pillage and destruction in the heart of France, as far as Auvergne:all of Neustria, between Loire et Seine, had to suffer from these untimely visits. However, from 885 to 911, Rollo seems to have realized that the Vikings were in a very different situation from that experienced by previous generations. They had easily been able to amass considerable booty by plundering the gold and silver which were found both in the monasteries and in the princely palaces. But, after a century of looting, there was hardly any gold, silver or coin left. Rollo, like the other leaders of Scandinavian bands of the time, then thought of settling definitively on part of the territories he controlled, especially since it was impossible for him to return to his country, from where he had been driven out. Pagans and Christians live side by side These 25 years were not only devoted to looting operations; his men had already settled in villages and on unoccupied land, whose former inhabitants had died, fled or taken refuge in safer places. They had no doubt, like their leader, found concubines or companions. No doubt also the Vikings had established peaceful relations with the natives and undertook to trade with them, in particular the product of their spoils. Thus, during one of the truces of the siege of Paris recounted by Abbo of Saint-Germain, “the pagans and the Christians shared everything:house, bread, drink, roads, beds; each of the two peoples marveled at seeing themselves mingled with the other. » Beyond this poetic vision of things, it is likely that a kind of modus vivendi between “pagans” and “Christians”:the rapid integration of the Vikings cannot be explained without a long period of osmosis, during which these newcomers were able to discover the customs of the natives and understand the functioning of Frankish institutions. Rollo lived alongside the Christian Popa, who brought up her heir son according to the precepts of the Catholic faith; this cultured woman must have been for Rollo an informant of choice in the deepening of Carolingian culture and civilization. The peace treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, concluded in 911, can only be explained by a feeling of mutual exhaustion between the Vikings and the Franks. The peace treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, concluded in 911, can only be explained by a feeling of mutual exhaustion between the Vikings and the Franks. According to Dudon, the Franks, tired by so many years of struggle without victories, would have incited King Charles the Simple to concede territory to the Vikings. Moreover, the Vikings themselves would have forced their leader Rollo to accept the terms of the treaty. In a eulogy of the Norman land, they highlighted the many advantages represented by this fertile, wooded country, teeming with animals:"This land, completely abandoned, devoid of warriors and whose soil has not been worked by the plow for a long time, offers quality trees, is fragmented by the course of rivers where various species of fish abound, abounds in game, does not ignore the vine and proves to be fertile if the soil has been worked by the coulter of the plow . It is bordered, on one side, by the sea likely to bring in abundance various goods and, on the other, it is separated to some extent from the kingdom of France by rivers which transport by boat all kinds of products; it will be of great fertility and great fruitfulness, provided that many people take care of it:this land will suit us and we will be satisfied with it to make it our place of residence. » The defeat suffered by Rollo before the city of Chartres on July 20, 911, during which he lost several hundred men, was undoubtedly the element that brought to a successful conclusion a process already underway for a long time. The Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte is in fact the result of a long palaver between the camp of the Franks and that of the Vikings, so that, according to these exchanges, the final provisions of the treaty differ in many points of the first proposals. Rollo has an adviser of choice in this delicate negotiation:the Archbishop of Rouen, Francon. It was he who was the pivot of the negotiations:he reported to King Charles on his meetings with Rollo and gave him his opinions; it was he again who reported to Rollo on royal proposals and who gave him valuable recommendations. Even if this point is not part of the negotiations or of the treaty, conversion is expressly advised to Rollo by Francon; one could see in it an incitement in keeping with the missionary vocation of an archbishop. But Francon's point is quite different:he explains that, if Rollo converts to the Christian faith, "he will be able to live in peace definitively" with the Franks, and above all to own land "that no one will dare to take from him again"; he could legitimately marry the king's daughter, or even establish a bond of friendship with Charles. An oath made on the relics The two armies met on the banks of the Epte. But, at the last moment, there was a dramatic change:Rollo laid down two new conditions which the king and the Franks had to accept. Rollo first demanded land to plunder, since the territory granted had been devastated and ransacked for many years. Rollo refused Flanders, which was first granted to him by the king, but accepted the second royal proposal:the terra britannica , i.e. the dioceses of Coutances and Avranches, as well as the region of Bessin, which were located just to the west of the concession. Secondly, he demanded an oath from all Franks (king, abbots, bishops and counts) on relics or sacred objects, because he knew that the Franks would respect such an oath better than a simple pledge to a pagan:"Grace to this oath, he and his successors would hold the land from Epte to the sea, in alleu and in full ownership, forever. » We complied with the new demands of the Viking chief, but we do not know whether the episode during which Rollo refused to kiss the king's foot to thank him and sent one of his men to perform this rite belongs to legend or to history. 'story. What is certain is that the reality of this treaty cannot be doubted:we preserve today a charter of March 918, in which the king of the Franks recognizes that he cannot give abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés the part of the lands of the abbey of Croix-Saint-Leufroy "that we granted to the Normans of the Seine, that is to say to Rollo and his men, for the safeguard of the kingdom”. This duty for Rollo to protect the kingdom by barring the way to other Viking bands is not expressly mentioned in the treaty, but Rollo had an obligation to answer the call of the king in case of threat. Having become the Count of Rouen, Rollo is therefore no longer either a pirate or an outlaw; he is now recognized as a great of the kingdom of France. He holds all the sovereign powers:the King of France no longer has any rights over his lands, and the protection of the Church falls under his sole authority. The Norman territory, whose borders roughly coincide with the courses of the Bresle to the north, the Epte to the east and the Avre to the south, is made up of the dioceses of Rouen, Évreux and Lisieux. To the west, the western border is less marked; Dudon only indicates that Rollo's power ends where the terra britannica begins . In a single generation the Vikings adopted the language and customs of the Franks, as well as the Christian faith. In the aftermath of the treaty, Rollo faces several challenges. The first is the integration of its Vikings into Western civilization. Even if this change was not as easy and as rapid as Dudon suggests, the fact remains that in a single generation the Vikings adopted the language and customs of the Franks, as well as the Christian faith. As early as 912, Rollo was baptized by the Archbishop of Rouen and, on leaving the baptismal waters, he called himself "Robert", after the name of his godfather, the Duke of Neustria. Dudon's text further suggests that it was by an act of authority from their leader that his companions were in turn baptized and then accepted to be instructed in the Christian faith. In the following days, Rollo made considerable donations to cathedrals and monasteries located in the conceded territory (cathedrals of Rouen and Évreux, monasteries of Jumièges and Saint-Ouen de Rouen) and to lands where he had no no authority (Bayeux cathedral, Mont-Saint-Michel monastery, Saint-Denis abbey). To make these choices, Rollo faithfully follows the advice of the Archbishop of Rouen. If the abandonment of pagan rites was difficult, the adoption of the language and customs of the Franks proved to be easier. Several factors favored this integration. The Vikings lived for nearly 30 years on Neustrian soil and had necessarily acquired the essential linguistic bases for a life in society with the natives:the vast majority of them abandoned the Norse language, spoken in Scandinavia, to express themselves Normanno-Picard, one of the dialects of the langue d'oïl spoken north of the Loire. In addition, most lived in the company of native concubines, who raised the children born of these unions in their language, their traditions and their beliefs. The peace established by the Treaty of 911 reinforced these natural tendencies towards integration. The former outlaw defends order As soon as he took power, Rollo, who for many years had been a cause of trouble and insecurity, had to impose public peace on subjects of diverse origins and cultures. The Viking companions of Rollo now rubbed shoulders, but also other Vikings established independently of his arrival, Englishmen enlisted willingly or by force by Rollo during his stay in England to be able to have a sufficient army, the Frankish natives ( peasants, craftsmen, sailors, traders) who had survived by establishing more or less ephemeral contacts with the Vikings, foreigners attracted by the peace finally restored in a rich agricultural region. Among the great Norman families of the X th and the XI th century, there are many people from Brittany, Anjou, Flanders, France and Burgundy. Rollo's first task was to give land from which everyone could make a living. According to Dudon, he “measured the earth and distributed it among his followers with a line”. This cadastral operation could only concern unoccupied land, due to the flight of Frankish aristocrats and most of the monks, generally endowed with immense estates. This distribution by line is a Nordic custom which distinguishes the built plot and the land to be cultivated. Dudon discusses at greater length the laws and rights that Rollo imposes with the agreement of the nobles of his county. The examples that Dudon retains concern theft and robbery:like a Carolingian prince, Rollo proclaims the ban on all the territory under his authority. In particular, it forbids bringing home the iron elements of the plow, as well as draft animals:their safety is guaranteed by the “peace of the duke”, often qualified as “peace of the plow”. Any offender can be punished with death. From 911 to 927, Rollo exercised his powers as a Frankish count, while continuing his activities as a band leader. From 911 to 927, Rollo exercised his powers as a Frankish count, while continuing, it seems, his activities as a gang leader. In 922, when the nobles of the Frankish kingdom replaced Charles the Simple with Robert of Neustria, the very man who had been Rollo's godfather in 912, Rollo refused to take part in the plot and remained faithful to Charles, with whom he had concluded the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. Robert perished the following year and was replaced by Raoul, Count of Burgundy, who threatened Normandy; it is, it seems, for his late rallying to the new king that Rollo received, in 924, the two dioceses of Bayeux and Sées. Having become old, unable to ride a horse, Rollo made Popa's son his heir and had him recognized by all the greats of the county:Guillaume Long Sword succeeded his father around 927. Rollo died around 932; he was buried in the cathedral of Rouen. When the Romanesque cathedral was dedicated in 1063 by Archbishop Maurille, the tomb was moved and, on this occasion, the Archbishop had an epitaph engraved in gold letters beginning as follows:"Duke of the Normans, terror of his enemies , shield of his people, / Rollo lies within this tomb under this inscription. » Find out more Rollon. The Viking leader who founded Normandy, by Pierre Bouet, Tallandier, 2016.The Vikings, truths and legends, by Jean Renaud, Perrin. Timeline 820 First appearance of a small Viking fleet in the bay of the Seine.841 First Viking raid in the Bay of Seine. Rouen and Jumièges are burned.876-886 Arrival of Rollo and his army, and first contact with Archbishop Francon.911 Conclusion of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between the Vikings and the Franks.912 Baptism of Rollo, now called Robert, and his men.924 The king grants Rollo or the Count of Rouen the dioceses of Bayeux and Sées.927 Guillaume Long Sword, son of Rollo and his wife Popa, is associated with power.932 After his death, Rollo was buried in the old cathedral of Rouen.942 Guillaume Long Sword is assassinated in Picquigny, on an island in the Somme. The Fluctuations of Neustria Neustria forms, with Austrasia, Aquitaine and Burgundy, the kingdom of France under the Merovingians, then under the Carolingians. It continues to have moving borders, according to divisions and dynastic changes. At the time of the Viking invasions, Neustria corresponded to the territory located between the Loire and the Seine:it was then managed by the Robertian family, descended from the Marquis Robert le Fort (853-866), who administered it by fighting both against the advances of the Bretons and the attacks of the Vikings. He was mortally wounded at the Battle of Brissarthe against the Vikings in 866. Noting the weakness of the last Carolingian kings, his successors tended to consider themselves independent of royal power. Eudes, the son of Robert the Strong, fought heroically against the Vikings during the siege of Paris, in 885-886, and was elected by the great kings of France in 888. The land granted to the Normans by the Treaty of Saint -Clair-sur-Epte is essentially part of Neustria. The Carolingian Kings After the death, in 814, of Charlemagne, who had taken measures to prevent Viking ships from landing on the coasts, the Carolingian Empire returned to its sole heir, Louis the Pious. After the latter's death, it was divided into three kingdoms by the Treaty of Verdun in 843:Francia occidentalis was attributed to Charles the Bald and the Francia orientalis to Louis the German; as for France proper, which included territories located between these two sets and which went from Saxony to central Italy, it returned to Lothair, who alone bore the title of emperor. The continual struggles between these three brothers weakened the Carolingian ensemble and facilitated the Viking incursions during the second part of the IX th century. After the death of Charles the Bald in 877, royal power fell to sovereigns who reigned for a short time. The counts or dukes who held the regal powers in the name of their sovereign took, as a result, a relative independence. This was the case of the counts of Flanders, the dukes of Burgundy and the dukes of Neustria, forced to compensate for the weaknesses of the central power. In 888, the greats of the kingdom deposed Charles the Fat to crown Eudes, Duke of Neustria, hero of the resistance to the Vikings during the siege of Paris in 885-886. The legitimate heir, Charles the Simple, was then too young to reign:he ascended the throne in 893. The Carolingian dynasty came to an end in 987, with the arrival of the Duke of Neustria, Hugh Capet. Long negotiations in Saint-Clair-sur-Epte The Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, concluded in 911, is the fruit of long discussions and perhaps the synthesis of several conventions established between Rollo and the Franks. Dudon is our only source for how this treaty was negotiated. It would be the Franks and the Vikings who, exhausted by the long struggles, would have forced their respective leaders to negotiate a definitive peace. Francon, the Archbishop of Rouen, would have been the main negotiator, since he had established close ties with Rollo for a long time. At first, King Charles the Simple agrees to give Rollo his daughter in marriage and land stretching from Andelle to the sea. Subsequently, the discussion turns to the extent of the land – either from the Andelle, but from the Epte to the sea – and on its status – no longer a concession of a vassalic nature, but a gift in full ownership (fundus , Latin term, and alodus , a Germanic term, both meaning "in full ownership"). Rollo also imposes a bond of friendship (amicitia ) with the king, a term evoking an equality of function, and not a link of f idelitas , a word expressing vassalic subjection. At the last moment, the Viking chief obtained land to plunder, since the land received as a gift had been the prey of plunderers for more than 80 years. He refused the Flanders proposed by the king, but accepted the terra britannica , the interpretation of which will become a matter of dispute. In addition, Rollo demanded from the king and from all the Franks an oath on relics to guarantee forever the independence of the "Norman land".
