Darius I († -486; in old Persian Dārayawuš, in ancient Greek Dareios), known as Darius the Great, is a great king of the Persian Empire; he belongs to the Achaemenid dynasty.
Darius was born around -550. He is the son of Hystaspes, and the grandson of Arsames. In his inscription at Behistoun, Darius presents himself as a direct descendant of Achaemenes, but it is undoubtedly a question, contrary to what he asserts, of a branch which did not produce kings until him. .
Darius bears the aulic titles of “quiver bearer” of Cyrus II, then of “spear bearer” of Cambyses II during the conquest of Egypt. He marries one of the daughters of Gobryas, one of the seven conspirators, who gives him three sons, including Artobarzanès the eldest, and Ariabignès.
Access to power
The reign of Bardiya provoked the discontent of the Persian aristocracy, to the point that General Otanès decided to overthrow him only a few months after his advent in -522. He gathers around him five other conspirators, including Gobryas who ends up appealing to Darius, to whom he is bound by an exchange of marriages (Gobryas married a sister of Darius).
The coup is presented by Herodotus as the work of a small group, sneaking into the palace and assassinating Bardiya in his bed, but Darius in the Behistoun inscription presents himself as "leader of an army of Medes and Persians”. It is more likely that the overthrow of Bardiya was the subject of military battles, with the insurgents pursuing him and executing him in a stronghold where he had taken refuge.
Herodotus (III, 80-83) writes that the debates over Bardiya's succession revolve around three options:isonomy, oligarchy and monarchy, the latter being proposed by Darius, but this discussion seems to reflect considerations of the Greek world of the time, and not necessarily those of the Persians. After he chose to continue the monarchy, and as there is no direct heir, still according to Herodotus (III, 86-87) the conspirators gather at dawn and decide that the first whose horse will neigh before the rising sun will be king; Darius' groom makes his horse smell like a mare, causing him to neigh. Here again, it is more likely that Darius ended up being the subject of a consensus between the conspirators, after Otanès withdrew from the discussion.
According to the custom which wanted the new king to marry the wives of his predecessor, but also to strengthen his links with the reigning branch of the Achaemenids, Darius married two of the daughters of Cyrus II, Atossa, widow of Cambyses II and Bardiya/Smerdis, and Artystone, one of his granddaughters, Parmys, as well as Phaidimè, widow of Bardiya/Smerdis but also daughter of Otanès. Later he marries Phratagounè, daughter of his brother Artanès.
The revolts of the provinces
The seizure of power by Darius immediately provoked revolts in Elam, which was quickly crushed, and in Babylonia, which was more difficult to control. While in Babylon, most of the other provinces rose up:Persia, Elam again, Media, Assyria, Egypt, Parthia, Armenia, Margiana, Sattagydia, and the Bags. Darius brags about having defeated all these rebels in the space of a single year, which seems hardly believable. The battles are fought on several fronts simultaneously by the generals of the army of Darius, this one directing the operations from Babylon, then from Media. Order is finally restored in the empire at the end of the year -521, with the exception of Armenia; Elam will revolt again in -519, then the Saces. Rebel leaders and their followers are systematically tortured and executed.
These revolts show that the legitimacy of Darius was not unanimous, since even Persia rose up under the leadership of a prince presenting himself as the real Bardiya. They also reveal the extent to which the Persian Empire was politically and administratively unstable, to the point of breaking up at the first difficult succession. Finally, the weight of the tributes and the fear of the local nobility of losing their prerogatives to the Persian rulers played a significant role. On the other hand, these uprisings do not seem to have been popular, which reinforces the image of a Persian domination rather well accepted by the local populations.
Reorganization of the Empire
Darius completely revises the system of satrapies, established by Cyrus. The tribute of each satrapy is fixed by the central power, and not the satrap either because it was one of the reasons for the revolts at the beginning of the reign. Only the satrapy of Persia is exempt from tribute. In each satrapy, justice is dispensed according to local traditions; in Egypt, Darius orders a compilation of all the legal texts up to Amasis. If each satrapy retains its own administration, the Achaemenid power remains very present and intervenes frequently. Just as the Persians did not disseminate their laws, they did not impose their language either:it was Aramaic, the lingua franca of a large part of the empire, which was used for communication between the satrapies and the central power, the orders then being translated into the local language.
The builder king [edit]
Statue of Darius, 5th century BC. AD, 2.36 m without the head. First placed in Heliopolis, it was then brought back to Susa by Xerxes I. Preserved in the National Museum of Iran.
Statue of Darius, 5th century BC. AD, 2.36 m without the head. First placed in Heliopolis, it was then brought back to Susa by Xerxes I. Preserved at the National Museum of Iran.
After the crushing of the revolts, Darius undertakes the construction of a monument intended to proclaim his legitimacy, a huge bas-relief on the cliff of Behistoun. We see Darius as the Great King crushing Gaumata, and the nine liar kings chained. The bas-relief is framed by a text translated into three languages, Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian, recounting the overthrow of Gaumata, the repression of the lying kings, and giving all the justifications on the legitimacy of Darius, such as his lineage and the support received from Ahura Mazda.
Darius begins major construction work in Susa. If the city had been a capital for his predecessors Cyrus and Cambyses, they had not done any notable work there and Susa had retained its appearance as an Elamite capital. At the instigation of Darius, the whole city was remodeled:new fortifications were erected, and terraces were built, an apadana, a palace, houses, a monumental gate... It is likely that the works continued throughout the reign of Darius and beyond, for we note the use of Ionian and Carian craftsmen deported after the revolt of Ionia; the overall plan, however, was certainly drawn at the beginning of the reign of Darius. The sites extended over 70 hectares, including 12 hectares for the terrace of the palaces alone; as in Persepolis, huge terraces were built to accommodate the palaces.
Darius decides to build a new capital:it will be Parsa (Persepolis in Greek). As in Susa, the palaces will be built on a huge fortified terrace of 125,000 m². We can date from the reign of Darius:the Treasury, the palace of Darius, the great southern staircase (replaced by the western staircase under Xerxes) and possibly the Triptylon. But as at Susa, it is likely that the whole site was designed under Darius, and that his successors will generally only continue his vision.
In Egypt, Darius completes the digging of the canal linking the Red Sea to Bubastis, in the Nile delta, undertaken under Nekao II. A temple of Hibis was built in his name in the oasis of Kharga, and that of Nekheb was rebuilt. In Babylon, there is a palace built for Darius. In Jerusalem, alerted by the governor who was worried about the fervor around the reconstruction of the temple, Darius ordered the continuation of the work, for which he made a donation. The immense network of roads and royal posts, undertaken under Cyrus, is continued to connect all the satrapies.
Conquests
The conquests of Darius will go to the west of the empire; they appear as an effort to consolidate and secure the borders inherited from Cyrus and Cambyses, rather than as a desire to expand.
The first territory conquered, around -519, is Samos, which however does not integrate the empire but is entrusted to the tyrant Syloson, obliged to Darius. This is the first Persian incursion into the Aegean Sea.
In -513, following a civil war in Cyrene, most of Libya was subjugated.
The Expedition to Scythia
Also in -513, Darius personally leads an expedition to Scythia, the final objective of which remains uncertain. According to Herodotus (IV, 87), it gathered 700,000 men, accompanied by 600 ships, the workforce being mainly provided by the cities of the Hellespont. The fleet heads for the Danube, while Darius submits part of Thrace and the Getae. Joining the fleet at the mouth of the Danube, the army plunged into Scythian territory, but the very diverse local populations resisted while refusing open confrontation. Darius is finally forced to retreat, the Danube thus marking a final border of the Persian Empire. On the way back, the conquest of Thrace is completed. Faced with the threat, Macedonia submits without a fight and becomes a protectorate.
The revolt of Ionia
In -500, following the call for help from the tyrants of Naxos driven out by their people, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras proposed to the satrap Artaphernes to take Naxos, and from there, the Cyclades and Euboea. The expedition is approved by Darius, but dissensions in the command cause it to fail, and to avoid the punishment of the Great King, Aristagoras rebels, declares Ionia independent and imposes isonomy. He obtains the support of Athens, which sends 25 ships. The first attack takes place in -499 against Sardis, which is set on fire but the acropolis remains impregnable; the rebels suffer a heavy defeat near Ephesus, and Athens withdraws its support. However, the uprising spread throughout the region, from Byzantium to Caria and Cyprus. After a few initial successes against the Persian army, the balance of power is reversed and the cities fall into Persian hands one after the other. Aristagoras dies in a fight against the Thracians. The Ionian fleet was finally defeated at Ladè in -494, and Miletus fell. The Persians are ruthless towards the vanquished.
In -493, Darius sends his son-in-law Mardonios to Asia Minor, from where he integrates Macedonia into the empire, as well as Bryges and Thasos.
The Aegean Sea
The conquest of Greece is preparing from -491, for which all the cities of Asia Minor are put to contribution; the first objective seems to be the capture of the islands of the Aegean Sea:Naxos falls in -490, then Delos, Karystos, and Euboea. Persian domination over the Aegean Sea is thus complete. The second part will be quickly interrupted:the Persians land in the plain of Marathon, where they are crushed by the allied Greeks led by the Athenians, and must retreat. The lack of insistence of the Persians shows that the main objective of this expedition was indeed the Aegean Sea and not mainland Greece.
The Persian Empire then reached its maximum extension.
The
death of Darius
Herodotus (VII, 1.4) recounts that Darius immediately began to prepare a new expedition against Greece, which he would personally lead, but he was interrupted by an insurrection in Egypt in -486. As he prepares to intervene, Darius dies of illness in November -486. He is buried in a rock tomb that he had built during his lifetime, in Naqsh-e Rostam.
His son Xerxes succeeded him at the head of the Empire.