Hindus sit and eat food separately and the place of their food is a square covered with cow dung. They do not use waste and if the utensils in which they eat are of clay, then after eating food they throw away the utensils.
– Albiruni, 10-11th century AD.
Medieval Indian society was an evolved form of social institutions developed in ancient times. Traditions like caste, family, marriage, sixteen rites, charity, hari-kirtan, pilgrimage etc. had an important place in the life of this period, but during this period Indian society was completely divided into two parts as Hindu and Muslim. was.
There was a great difference in the social rules and behavior of both. There was a principle of equality and fraternity among the Muslims, whereas in the Hindus there was a huge disparity within the society due to caste system and untouchability. From marriage to succession rules, rituals, dress, food and reception of the dead were completely different between Hindus and Muslims. Teej-festivals and festivals of both were also different.
Though the decision of marriage in both Hindus and Muslims was family, but in Muslims its basis was not caste but social status, whereas in Hindus the basis of marriage was both caste and social status. Communion among Hindus was held only between people of their own caste whereas among Muslims there was no basis for cohabitation.
Widow-marriage was still not considered good among Hindus and widow-marriage was negligible, but there was no restriction on widow-marriage among Muslims. In Hindus there was no way of divorce after marriage, but among Muslims, divorce could be done very easily by men. Hindus used to do one marriage but Muslims could do up to four marriages. Any number of marriages could be done by the prince and the emperor. There was also a huge difference between the music, dance, painting and architecture of Hindus and Muslims.
Hindus and Muslims considered each other inferior and hated each other due to differences in social customs and cultural traditions. The problem remained throughout the medieval period as to how to develop harmony between these two social and cultural systems having their own strong bases! During the entire Delhi Sultanate period, the gap between Hindus and Muslims kept getting deeper and wider.
Medieval sages criticized the evils of Hindus and Muslims and suggested the way of cultivating love instead of fighting. During the Mughal period, Akbar also made efforts to bring closer the religion and culture of Hindus and Muslims. In the field of art and literature also efforts were made to harmonize Hindu and Muslim art traditions, but there were so many differences between these two cultures that it was not possible to bring them closer.
Applying tilak, wearing Janeu, idol-worship, cow-worship, Vishnu-worship, Ganga-bathing, recitation of Ramayana and Gita, etc. had penetrated so deeply into the rituals of the Hindus that they could not leave these things while the Muslims did. Eating beef, forcibly converting Hindus to Muslims, destroying temples, etc., were so firmly held that they were not ready to leave them and embrace Hindus.
Hindu Customs
In the medieval period, out of the sixteen rites in Hinduism, only five-six rites such as Jatkarma, Naamkaran, Chudakaran, Upanayana and Marriage Sanskar were in vogue. Abul Fazl has written that after the birth of a child in Jatkarma Sanskar, a mixture of ghee and honey was poured into the baby's mouth with gold rings. In Bengal, women used to offer green grass and rice on the newborn baby, wishing him long life.
Tulsidas and Surdas in their compositions 'Nandi Mukh Shradh' after child birth has been mentioned. On this occasion, things like gold, cow, clothes, food etc. were given to Brahmins as donations. Mango or Ashoka leaves were hung on the doors of the house on auspicious functions and festivals in the family. After the birth of the child, an announcement was made about his future by making the horoscope.
The naming ceremony was held forty days after the birth of the child. In Bengal, a mixture of milk, curd and turmeric was used to apply tilak on the forehead of the infant. To know the interest of the child, many things like paddy, rice, soil, gold, silver etc. were placed in front of the child and it was seen that which one he touches!
When the child was six months old, the anna-prashana ceremony was performed. According to the context in the verses of Surdas, the child was offered kheer, honey and ghee which his father used to feed him after the rituals. When the child was three years old, the mundan ceremony (chudakarma) was performed and the hair was cut off leaving a braid on the head.
Then the ear piercing ceremony of the child was also performed, that is, both his ears were pierced. At the age of eight, the sacred thread ceremony was performed for the child, also known as the Upanayana ceremony. There were three yarns in the thread, in which each yarn was made by weaving three threads. The thread was hung on the child's left shoulder and the ends of which were wrapped around the right hand.
The three threads of the thread are symbols of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh and its white color indicates purity. After wearing the thread, the child started his studies. The Gayatri Mantra was recited by the Guru to the child before starting his studies. Dakshina was given to the Brahmins and donations were given to the poor on this occasion. Samavartan ceremony was performed at the end of the child's schooling.
Customs of Muslims
The birth of a son was considered good in Muslim families. On this occasion Jalsa was performed at home. Mansi, who came to India from Italy in the seventeenth century AD, describes the celebration of the birth of a son in a wealthy Muslim family.
When a son was born, honey was dripped into the infant's mouth and a drop of milk was poured into the infant's mouth by pressing the mother's breast. Azaan was heard to the baby. On the birth of princes, Akbar had also made horoscopes like Hindus did. The name of the child was given on the day of birth. This work was usually done by the grandfather.
The sixth day was celebrated on the sixth day after the birth of a child. After bathing the child, he was dressed in a shirt of old clothes worn by a fakir. Akbar's first cloth was made from the dress of Sufi saint Syed Ali Shiraji. Aqikaah was performed on the seventh day after the birth of a child. On this occasion two goats were slaughtered for the boy and one for the girl.
The boy had his first shave on the same day. Abul Fazl mentions the Turkish customs adopted by the Mughals. When the child started walking, the grandfather of the child used to push the child with his turban so that he would fall. Bismillah or Maktab was performed when the child was four years, four months and four days old. Circumcision or Sunnah was also performed with great pomp. Akbar had forbidden circumcision before the age of 12, even after that this work was left on the wish of that child.
Traditions and rules of marriage in Hindus
In medieval India, marriage ceremonies, both Hindu and Muslim, were celebrated with great pomp as today. The practice of child marriage was prevalent among both Hindus and Muslims. In Assam, child marriage was practiced only among Brahmins and Kshatriyas. In the rest of the castes, marriages took place only when they became adults. Apart from Assam, in the rest of India, among Hindus, daughters were married up to the age of six to eight years.
It was considered taboo for older girls to live in the father's house. In the case of child marriage, cohabitation took place only at a young age. Akbar fixed the minimum age of marriage as 16 years for boys and 14 years for girls. The marriage required the consent of the bride and groom as well as the parents. After Akbar, no emperor got this order to be properly followed.
Among the Hindus, inter-caste marriages with blood relatives and kinsmen were prohibited. Akbar was not a supporter of marriage among close relatives. He also considered wrong the practice of a young man marrying a middle-aged woman for the greed of money. Akbar ordered that if the woman is more than 12 years older than her husband, then such marriage will be considered illegal and annulled.
Dowry system was prevalent in the society. Rich people used to give a lot of money in the form of dowry in the marriage of their daughter. Poor people were also not spared from this practice. Tukaram, the great saint of Maharashtra also had to ask for money from the people of the village for the marriage of his daughter. Akbar was opposed to the dowry system, but he did not make any effort to end this evil.
Along with giving dowry to the daughter by the father, the practice of filling myra (rice) by the maternal uncle in the marriage of the niece was prevalent. Narsi Mehta had to make a compassionate call to God to fill the marriage of her Dohiti.
In the medieval period, widow-marriage was banned in the rest of the Hindu society except for a few lower castes in the beginning. No medieval ruler tried to revive it. As a result, the problem of child widows was acute in the medieval period, who had to lead a hellish life living within the four walls of the house. Akbar declared widow-marriage legal. She believed that a young woman who could not have pleasure with her husband, should not be sati, should be married to a widower.
Marriage Ceremony in Hindus
In Hindus, the bride and groom were chosen by the parents or elder members of the household. The boy's voice was heard in the matter of marriage, but the girls did not have the right to speak anything about their marriage. Girls from wealthy households were the exception. Some priests or priestesses or clever women knew about marriageable boys and girls and used to counsel and assist in marriage.
When both the parties agreed for the marriage relationship, then the engagement ceremony was done on the auspicious time specified by the astrologers. In this, some gifts were given by applying tilak on the forehead of the groom. Although the religious ceremony of marriage among Hindus differed greatly according to caste and province, the religious rites were similar. Contemporary literary texts give details of the religious functions of these marriages.
Dressed in beautiful clothes, the groom used to ride on a horse, behind which sat an adult man to help him. The decorated procession with the groom used to go to the bride's house. In front of the procession, people dressed in colorful clothes used to walk, who also had weapons and weapons in their hands. Friends and relatives used to participate in the procession. When the bride-side of the procession reached home, they were welcomed and served with dishes called jaunar.
The bride and groom used to garland each other. Vedic mantras were recited by the priests and the deities were invoked by offering sacrifices in the fire pit. The bride and groom used to take seven rounds around that fire pit. Kanyadan was done by the father of the bride. The bride was dressed in red bangles and her demand was filled with vermilion. The bride's father used to give gifts in the form of cash, gold and clothes to the bride and her relatives.
After this the groom used to come to his father's house with his bride. Akbar issued orders that Amir-Umrao should offer only two coconuts as a blessing in marriage. One will be considered on behalf of that officer and the other will be considered on behalf of Emperor Salamat.
Marriage Ceremony in Muslims
According to Muslim rules, any woman could be married by avoiding mother's milk, that is, any woman except real sister and any man could marry up to four women. Polygamy caused strife and immorality in many families. Before Akbar, no ruler had tried to curb the practice of polygamy.
Although the Ulema of Akbar's Ibadat Khana 'Nikah' by Four Women and 'Moota' But Akbar ordered that a person with simple income should do only one marriage, if the first wife is childless then he should think of second marriage. Akbar believed that having more than one wife is injurious to the health of a person and it also does not maintain order in the family.
Matrimonial Relations in Muslims 'Qawwal' used to determine. For this work, a fee from 1 price to 10 seals was collected from the family. Royal permission was taken before the marriage of boys and girls of high state officials and courtiers. The Mughal emperors had kept the custom of not marrying their girls, but Aurangzeb had married his two daughters Mehrunnisa and Zubedamunnisa at the behest of some Muslim mystics.
Marriage Ceremony in Muslims 'Sachak' from the bride's house (four valuable gifts) and sending mehndi. Fruits, sweets and money were sent decorated in beautiful saucers. The women of the family used to apply mehndi on the hands of the groom. The religious work of marriage was completed by the qazi. इसमें दुल्हन की औपचारिक स्वीकारोक्ति प्राप्त की जाती थी तथा दूल्हे के द्वारा इबादत तथा मेहर की घोषण से शादी की रस्म पूरी होती थी। शाही के अंत में कुरान पढ़ी जाती थी।
हिन्दुओं में विवाह विच्छेद
हिन्दू किसी भी परिस्थिति में अपनी पत्नी को तलाक नहीं दे सकता था कई बार विभिन्न कारणों से पति-पत्नी अलग रहते थे किंतु उनमें विवाह विच्छेद की कोई कानूनी, सामाजिक या धार्मिक रीति नहीं थी।
मुसलमानों में विवाह विच्छेद
मुसलमानों में तलाक को अच्छा नहीं समझा जाता था फिर भी उनमें तीन तलाक की प्रथा प्रचलित थी जिसमें पति अपनी पत्नी से असंतुष्ट होने पर तीन बार- ‘तलाक’ शब्द का उच्चारण करके उसे छोड़ देता था। इस अवसर पर उसे अपनी छोड़ी गई पत्नी को मेहर की रकम चुकानी होती थी। यदि पति पुनः उसी स्त्री से विवाह करता चाहता था तो उस स्त्री को किसी दूसरे व्यक्ति से विवाह करके उसके साथ शारीरिक सम्बन्ध बनाने के बाद दूसरे पति को तलाक देकर पुनः पहले पति से विवाह किया जा सकता था। इसे हलाला करना कहते थे।
हिन्दुओं के मृतक संस्कार
हिन्दुओं में अंतिम संस्कार का बड़ा महत्त्व था, क्योंकि वे इहलोक से परलोक को अधिक मान्यता देते थे। इनके मुख्य अनुष्ठान दाह-संस्कार, उदकर्म, असौच, अस्थि-संचयन, शान्ति-कर्म और सपिंडी कर्म थे। अबुल फजल ने कुछ ऐसे वर्गों का उल्लेख किया है जिनके लिए दाह-संस्कार वर्जित था। धर्मशास्त्र के अनुसार छोटे बच्चों और तपस्वियों के लिए भू-समाधि एवं जल-समाधि का प्रावधान था।
जब व्यक्ति मरणासन्न हो जाता था तब उसे चारपाई से उठाकर जमीन पर लिटा देते थे। उसका सिर उत्तर की तरफ रहता था तथा उस पर हरी दूब बिखेर कर गाय का गोबर लगाते थे। उसके मस्तक पर पवित्र गंगाजल डालकर मुँह में तथा वक्षस्थल पर तुलसीदल रखते थे। मरणासन्न व्यक्ति को भवसागर पार कराने के उद्देश्य से गोदान किया जाता था।
अन्न, वस्त्र एवं, भोजन एवं सिक्के दान किए जाते थे। अबुल फजल ने बंगाल की एक प्रथा का उल्लेख किया है, इसमें मृत्युशैय्या पर पड़े व्यक्ति को उठाकर निकट की नदी में ले जाया जाता था और मृत्यु के समय उसके शरीर को कमर तक जलधार में डुबाये रखते थे। सिक्ख-पंथ के संस्थापक गुरुनानक ने उल्लेख किया है कि किसी सम्बन्धी की मृत्यु की सूचना देने वाले पत्र के ऊपरी कौने को फाड़ दिया जाता था।
यह प्रथा आज भी प्रचलित है। मृत्यु के पश्चात् तीन दिन तक परिवार के सदस्य भूमि पर सोते थे, दिन में मांगकर या खरीद कर लाए गए भोजन ग्रहण करते थे। घर में भोजन नहीं बनाया जाता था। मृतक के परिवार वाले दस दिन से लेकर एक माह का शोक रखते थे। इस दौरान वे हजामत बनाने, वेद-पाठ करने, देव-प्रतिमाओं की पूजा करने आदि का निषेध रखते थे। गहरे रंग के कपड़े नहीं पहने जाते थे।
औरतें सिर पर सफेद दुपट्टा रखती थीं। चार से दस दिन में ‘अस्थि-संचयन’ किया जाता था जिसमें चिता से राख एवं अस्थियों को एकत्रित करके दूध तथा गंगाजल से धोया जाता था और पवित्र नदियों में विसर्जित कर दिया जाता था। मृत्यु के तेरहवें दिन रिश्तेदारों द्वारा मृतक के उत्तराधिकारी को पगड़ी बांधते थे। अबुल फजल के अनुसार मृत्यु के एक साल बाद मृतक का श्राद्ध किया जाता था जिसमें ब्राह्मणों को दान दिया जाता था।
मुसलमानों के मृतक संस्कार
मुसलमानों के मृत्यु संस्कार के नियम अलग थे। मरणासन्न व्यक्ति का मुख मक्का की तरफ फेर दिया जाता था और उसके निकट कुरान के यासीन अध्याय का पाठ किया जाता था। उसे मक्का के जमजम कुएं का पानी या शर्बत पिलाया जाता था, जिससे शरीर से प्राण निकलने में सुविधा हो। व्यक्ति की मृत्यु हो जाने पर मृत्यु की घोषणा की जाती थी।
शाही परिवार के किसी सदस्य या बादशाह के प्रिय व्यक्ति के मरने पर वकील अपनी बांह पर नीला रूमाल बांधकर बादशाह के सामने उपस्थित होता था। मृतक के सम्बन्धी अपने कपड़ों को फाड़ते और अपने सिर पर धूल डालते थे। मृतक के शव को फूल मालाओं तथा सुगन्धित द्रव्यों से सुसज्जित कर कब्रिस्तान ले जाया जाता था।
किसी शाही अधिकारी की मृत्यु होने पर उसके प्रतीक चिह्न, ध्वज तथा हाथी-घोड़े आदि भी शव-यात्रा में शामिल होते थे। कुछ मुसलमान भी अपने प्रियजन की मृत्यु पर सिर मुंडवा लेते थे। चालीस दिनों तक शोक रखा जाता था। शोक में स्वादिष्ट भोजन और सुन्दर पोशाक से परहेज रखा जाता था। शोक की समाप्ति चालीसवें दिन होती थी।
इस दिन मृतक के सम्बन्धी एवं मित्र, मृतक की कब्र पर जाते थे और मृतक के नाम पर गरीबों में खाना, कपड़ा और पैसे बांटते थे। मृत्यु की वार्षिकी भी इसी तरह मनाई जाती थी। जहाँगीर के अनुसार वार्षिकी मनाने का रिवाज मुसलमानों ने हिन्दुओं से ग्रहण किया था। फातिहा पढ़े जाने के बाद गरीबों में भोजन बांटा जाता था। इब्नबतूता ने उल्लेख किया है कि मृतक को उसके जीवन काल के समान ही आवश्यक वस्तुएं भेंट दी जाती थी।
अमीर लोग अपने पूर्वजों की कब्र पर रोशनी एवं सजावट करते थे और साधारण लोग मृतक की कब्र पर दीपक जलाते थे। अमीरों की कब्रों के प्रवेश द्वार पर हाथी-घोड़े बांधे जाते थे। कुरान पढ़ने के लिए खतमी (वाचक) नियुक्त किए जाते थे। सन्तों की कब्र पर अमीरों द्वारा दरगाह बनवाई जाती थी, जहाँ उसके अनुयाइयों की भीड़ लगती थी। फीरोज तुगलक की तरह औरंगजेब भी कब्रिस्तान में औरतों के प्रवेश का विरोधी था। वह कब्रों पर छत डालने तथा उसकी दीवारों पर सफेदी पोतने को भी पसन्द नहीं करता था।